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List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

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Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ('bright'), the name of the dynasty.[1] National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Details
StyleYour Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch
Last monarch
Formation
  • 1368
Abolition
  • 1644 (Ming dynasty)
  • 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence
AppointerHereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty followed the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.

The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[2]

The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tianzi).[3] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors.[4] Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him.[5] However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries.[6] When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.

Of sixteen Ming emperors, fourteen resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[7]

Background

[edit]
The Hongwu Emperor (left), who proclaimed the Ming dynasty on 23 January 1368, and his son, the Yongle Emperor (right), whose reign is often seen as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.[8]

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Da Ming) and declared himself its first emperor.[9]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[10] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[11]

The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.[12]

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.[13] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[14] As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations.[15] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[16] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[16] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[16] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[15]

During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability.[17] However, in the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627-1644).[18] The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[19]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[20]

List of emperors

[edit]

The emperor's personal name (名字; Mingzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply Shang).[21] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shihao), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miaohao), and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.[22] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[23]

Era name (年號; Nianhao), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time.[23] During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.[24]

  (#) – Posthumously recognized emperors
  (§) – Regents
Portrait Emperor name Personal name Reign[a] Succession Life details

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

[edit]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Dezu (德祖)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Xuan (玄皇帝) (conferred in 1368)
Zhu Bailiu (#)
朱百六
Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor Unknown lifespan
Died of natural causes[26]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Yizu (懿祖)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Heng (恆皇帝) (conferred in 1368)
Zhu Sijiu (#)
朱四九
Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor Unknown lifespan
Died of natural causes[26]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xizu (熙祖)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Yu (裕皇帝) (conferred in 1368)
Zhu Chuyi (#)
朱初一
Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor Unknown lifespan
Died of natural causes[26]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Renzu (仁祖)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Chun (淳皇帝) (conferred in 1368)
Zhu Shizhen (#)
朱世珍
Father of the Hongwu Emperor 1281–1344
(aged 62–63)
Died of starvation[26]
Hongwu Emperor
洪武帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Taizu (太祖)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Gao (高皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao (開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝)
Zhu Yuanzhang
朱元璋
23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398
(30 years, 5 months and 1 day)
Era(s)

    • Hongwu (洪武)
      23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398
Born into poverty, he led the Red Turban Rebellions to establish the Ming dynasty 21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398
(aged 69)
Initiated cultural reconstruction and political reform, also noted for his extreme and violent methods of enforcement. Died of natural causes[27]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xingzong (興宗)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Xiaokang (孝康皇帝)
Zhu Biao (#)
朱標
Son of the Hongwu Emperor, father of the Jianwen Emperor. Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor. 10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392
(aged 36)
Died of sudden illness[28]
Jianwen Emperor
建文帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Huizong (惠宗)[b]
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Hui (惠皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Gongmin Hui (恭閔惠皇帝)[c]
Zhu Yunwen
朱允炆
30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402
(4 years and 13 days)
Era(s)

    • Hongwu (洪武)
      30 June 1398 – 5 February 1399
    • Jianwen (建文)
      6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402
Grandson of the Hongwu Emperor 5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402
(aged 24)
Overthrown by the future Yongle Emperor, his uncle. Either died in or disappeared after the fires in the Ming Palace.[30]
Yongle Emperor
永樂帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Chengzu (成祖)[d]
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Wen (文皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Qitian Hongdao Gaoming Zhaoyun Shengwu Shengong Chunren Zhixiao Wen (啓天弘道高明肇運聖武神功純仁至孝文皇帝)
Zhu Di
朱棣
17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424
(22 years and 26 days)
Era(s)

    • Hongwu (洪武)
      30 July 1402 – 22 January 1403[e]
    • Yongle (永樂)
      23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425
Son of the Hongwu Emperor 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424
(aged 64)
Raised the Ming to its highest power. Patron of many projects, including the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, Yongle Encyclopedia and the Ming treasure voyages. Died of natural causes.[33]
Hongxi Emperor
洪熙帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Renzong (仁宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Zhao (昭皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Jingtian Tidao Chuncheng Zhide Hongwen Qinwu Zhangsheng Daxiao Zhao (敬天體道純誠至德弘文欽武章聖達孝昭皇帝)
Zhu Gaochi
朱高熾
12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425
(9 months and 17 days)
Era(s)

    • Yongle (永樂)
      12 August 1424 – 19 January 1425
    • Hongxi (洪熙)
      20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426
Son of the Yongle Emperor 16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425
(aged 46)
Focused primarily on domestic affairs. Died of natural causes[34]
Xuande Emperor
宣德帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xuanzong (宣宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Zhang (章皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Xiantian Chongdao Yingming Shensheng Qinwen Zhaowu Kuanren Chunxiao Zhang (憲天崇道英明神聖欽文昭武寬仁純孝章皇帝)
Zhu Zhanji
朱瞻基
29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435
(9 years, 8 months and 2 days)
Era(s)

    • Hongxi (洪熙)
      28 June 1425 – 7 February 1426
    • Xuande (宣德)
      8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436
Son of the Hongxi Emperor 16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435
(aged 35)
A noted painter. Died of natural causes[35]
Emperor Yingzong
英宗
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Yingzong (英宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Rui (睿皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao Rui (法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝睿皇帝)
Zhu Qizhen
朱祁镇
31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449
(14 years, 7 months and 22 days)[f]
Era(s)

    • Xuande (宣德)
      31 January 1435 – 17 January 1436
    • Zhengtong (正統)
      18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450
Son of the Xuande Emperor 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464
(aged 36)
His reign was dominated by eunuchs, particularly Wang Zhen, which led to growing instability. Captured by the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis.[37]
Jingtai Emperor
景泰帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Daizong (代宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Jing (景皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Gongren Kangding Jing (恭仁康定景皇帝)
Zhu Qiyu
朱祁鈺
22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457
(7 years, 4 months and 20 days)
Era(s)

    • Zhengtong (正統)
      22 September 1449 – 13 January 1450
    • Jingtai (景泰)
      14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457
Son of the Xuande Emperor 11 September 1428 – 14 March 1457
(aged 28)
Briefly ruled while his brother was held captive; deposed soon after. Died a month later, possibly from murder.[38]
Emperor Yingzong
英宗
(second reign)
Zhu Qizhen
朱祁镇
11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464
(7 years and 12 days)[f]
Era(s)

    • Tianshun (天順)
      11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465
Son of the Xuande Emperor 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464
(aged 36)
Restored to power after his release. Died of natural causes[39]
Chenghua Emperor
成化帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xianzong (憲宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Chun (純皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Jitian Ningdao Chengming Renjing Chongwen Suwu Hongde Shengxiao Chun (繼天凝道誠明仁敬崇文肅武宏德聖孝純皇帝)
Zhu Jianshen
朱見濡
23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487
(23 years, 6 months and 17 days)
Era(s)

    • Tianshun (天順)
      23 February 1464 – 26 January 1465
    • Chenghua (成化)
      27 January 1465 – 9 September 1487
Son of Emperor Yingzong 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487
(aged 39)
Died of natural causes[40]
Hongzhi Emperor
弘治帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xiaozong (孝宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Jing (敬皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Datian Mingdao Chuncheng Zhongzheng Shengwen Shenwu Zhiren Dade Jing (達天明道純誠中正聖文神武至仁大德敬皇帝)
Zhu Youcheng
朱祐樘
9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505
(17 years, 8 months and 30 days)
Era(s)

    • Chenghua (成化)
      9 September 1487 – 13 January 1488
    • Hongzhi (弘治)
      14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506
Son of the Chenghua Emperor 30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505
(aged 34)
Died of natural causes[41]
Zhengde Emperor
正德帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Wuzong (武宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Yi (毅皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Chengtian Dadao Yingsu Ruizhe Zhaode Xiangong Hongwen Sixiao Yi (承天達道英肅睿哲昭德顯功弘文思孝毅皇帝)
Zhu Houzhao
朱厚㷖
9 June 1505 – 20 April 1521
(15 years, 10 months and 11 days)
Era(s)

    • Hongzhi (弘治)
      9 June 1505 – 23 January 1506
    • Zhengde (正德)
      24 January 1506 – 20 April 1521
Son of the Hongzhi Emperor 14 November 1491 – 20 April 1521
(aged 29)
His reign saw the rise of influence from eunuchs, particularly Liu Jin. Probably drowned after his boat sank.[42]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Ruizong (睿宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Xian (獻皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Zhitian Shoudao Hongde Yuanren Kuanmu Chunsheng Gongjian Jinwen Xian (知天守道洪德淵仁寬穆純聖恭簡敬文獻皇帝) (conferred in 1538)
Zhu Youyuan (#)
朱祐杬
Son of the Chenghua Emperor, father of the Jiajing Emperor 22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519
(aged 42)
Died of natural causes[43]
Jiajing Emperor
嘉靖帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Shizong (世宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Su (肅皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Qintian Lüdao Yingyi Shengshen Xuanwen Guangwu Hongren Daxiao Su (欽天履道英毅聖神宣文廣武洪仁大孝肅皇帝)
Zhu Houcong
朱厚熜
27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567
(45 years, 7 months and 26 days)
Era(s)

    • Zhengde (正德)
      27 May 1506 – 26 January 1522
    • Jiajing (嘉靖)
      28 January 1522 – 23 January 1567
Grandson of the Chenghua Emperor, brother of Zhengde Emperor 16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567
(aged 59)
Died of natural causes[44]
Longqing Emperor
隆慶
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Muzong (穆宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Zhuang (莊皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Qitian Longdao Yuanyi Kuanren Xianwen Guangwu Chunde Hongxiao Zhuang (契天隆道淵懿寬仁顯文光武純德弘孝莊皇帝)
Zhu Zaiji
朱載坖
23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572
(5 years, 5 months and 12 days)
Era(s)

    • Jiajing (嘉靖)
      23 January 1567 – 8 February 1567
    • Longqing (隆慶)
      9 February 1567 – 5 July 1572
Son of the Jiajing Emperor 4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572
(aged 35)
Died of natural causes[45]
Wanli Emperor
萬曆帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Shénzōng (神宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Xian (顯皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Fantian Hedao Zhesu Dunjian Guangwen Zhangwu Anren Zhixiao Xian (範天合道哲肅敦簡光文章武安仁止孝顯皇帝)
Zhu Yijun
朱翊鈞
5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620
(48 years, 1 month and 13 days)
Era(s)

    • Longqing (隆慶)
      5 July 1572 – 1 February 1573
    • Wanli (萬曆)
      2 February 1573 – 18 August 1620
Son of the Longqing Emperor 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620
(aged 56)
Despite early successes, the gradual decline of Ming began towards the end of his reign. Died of natural causes[46]
Taichang Emperor
泰昌帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Guangzong (光宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Zhen (貞皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Chongtian Qidao Yingrui Gongchun Xianwen Jingwu Yuanren Yixiao Zhen (崇天契道英睿恭純憲文景武淵仁懿孝貞皇帝)
Zhu Changluo
朱常洛
28 August – 26 September 1620
(29 days)
Era(s)

    • Taichang (泰昌)
      28 August 1620 – 26 September 1620
Son of the Wanli Emperor 28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620
(aged 38)
Died suddenly after a reign of around a month, possibly murdered by poison[47]
Tianqi Emperor
天啓帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Xizong (熹宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Zhe (悊皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Datian Chandao Dunxiao Duyou Zhangwen Xiangwu Jingmu Zhuangqin Zhen (達天闡道敦孝篤友章文襄武靖穆莊勤悊皇帝)
Zhu Youjiao
朱由校
26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627
(7 years and 4 days)
Era(s)

    • Taichang (泰昌)
      26 September 1620 – 21 January 1621
    • Tianqi (天啓)
      22 January 1621 – 30 September 1627
Son of the Taichang Emperor 23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627
(aged 21)
A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by the eunuch Wei Zhongxian. Died from an unknown illness[48]
Chongzhen Emperor
崇禎帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Sizong (思宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Min (愍皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Zhuanglie Min (莊烈愍皇帝)
Zhu Youjian
朱由檢
2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644
(16 years, 6 months and 23 days)
Era(s)

    • Tianqi (天啓)
      2 October 1627 – 4 February 1628
    • Chongzhen (崇禎)
      5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644
Son of the Taichang Emperor, brother of the Tianqi Emperor 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644
(aged 33)
Committed suicide, possibly by hanging himself on a tree.[49]

Southern Ming (1644–1662)

[edit]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Gongzong (恭宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Xiao (孝皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Mutian Fudao Zhenchun Suzhe Xiuwen Xianwu Shengjing Renyi Xiao (慕天敷道貞純肅哲修文顯武聖敬仁毅孝皇帝) (conferred in 1646)
Zhu Changxun (#)
朱常洵
Father of the Hongguang Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor 22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641
(aged 55)
Killed by Li Zicheng[50]
Hongguang Emperor
弘光帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Anzong (安宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Jian (簡皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Chutian Chengdao Chengjing Yingzhe Zuanwen Beiwu Xuanren Duxiao Jian (處天承道誠敬英哲纘文備武宣仁度孝簡皇帝)
Zhu Yousong
朱由崧
19 June 1644
– 15 June 1645
(11 months and 27 days)
Era(s)

    • Chongzhen (崇禎)
      19 June 1644 – 27 January 1645
    • Hongguang (弘光)
      28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645
Grandson of the Wanli Emperor 5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646
(aged 38)
A weak ruler, his reign was plagued by political struggles. Executed by the Qing dynasty[51]
None, known by his personal name Zhu Changfang (§)
朱常淓
1 July – 6 July 1645
(5 days)
Era(s)

    • regent Lu (Luh) (潞王監國)[g][h]
      1 July – 6 July 1645
Grandson of the Longqing Emperor 1608 – 23 May 1646
(aged 38)
Surrendered to the Qing dynasty, later executed[52]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Posthumous name:
    Emperor Hui (惠皇帝) (conferred in 1645)
Zhu Yuwen (#)
朱宇溫
Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors 1490–1560
(aged 69–70)
Died of natural causes[53]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Posthumous name:
    Emperor Shun (順皇帝) (conferred in 1645)
Zhu Zhouyong (#)
朱宙栐
Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors 1538–1564
(aged 25–26)
Died of natural causes[53]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Posthumous name:
    Emperor Duan (端皇帝) (conferred in 1645)
Zhu Shuohuang (#)
朱碩熿
Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors Unknown – 24 January 1630
Died of natural causes[53]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Posthumous name:
    Emperor Xuan (宣皇帝) (conferred in 1645)
Zhu Qisheng (#)
朱器墭
Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors Unknown – 1629
Died of poisoning[53]
Longwu Emperor
隆武帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Shaozong (紹宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Xiang (襄皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang (配天至道弘毅肅穆思文烈武敏仁廣孝襄皇帝)
Zhu Yujian
朱聿鍵
18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646
(1 year, 1 month and 18 days)
Era(s)

    • Hongguang (弘光)
      18 August – 28 August 1645
    • Longwu (隆武)
      28 August 1645 – 4 February 1647
Son of Zhu Qisheng, a descendant of the first Ming emperor 25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646
(aged 44)
Captured and killed by the Qing forces[54]
Shaowu Emperor
紹武帝
Zhu Yuyue
朱聿鐭
11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647
(1 month and 9 days)
Era(s)

    • Longwu (隆武)
      11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647
    • Shaowu (紹武)[i]
Son of Zhu Qisheng, a descendant of the first Ming emperor, and younger brother of the Longwu Emperor 1605 – 20 January 1647
(aged 42)
Committed suicide after being captured by the Qing forces[55]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Posthumous name:
    Emperor Dao 悼皇帝) (conferred in 1646)
Zhu Cilang (#)
朱慈烺
Son of the Chongzhen Emperor 26 February 1629 – Unknown
Disappeared after the fall of Beijing; fate unknown[56]
None, known by his personal name Zhu Yihai (§)
朱以海
7 September 1645 – 1653
(7 years)
Era(s)

    • Hongguang (弘光)
      7 September 1645 – 15 February 1646
    • regent Lu (Lou) (魯監國)[g][h]
      16 February 1646 – 1653
Son of Zhu Shouyong, a descendant of the first Ming emperor 6 July 1618
– 23 December 1662
(aged 44)
Died of natural causes[57]
None, known by his personal name
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Lizong (禮宗)
    Posthumous name:
    Emperor Duan (端皇帝) (conferred in 1646)
Zhu Changying (#)
朱常瀛
Father of the Yongli Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor 25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645
(aged 48)
Died of illness[50]
Yongli Emperor
永曆帝
Other names

  • Temple name:
    Zhaozong (昭宗)
    Posthumous name (short):
    Emperor Kuang (匡皇帝)
    Posthumous name (long):
    Emperor Yingtian Tuidao Minyi Gongjian Jingwen Weiwu Liren Kexiao Kuang (應天推道敏毅恭檢經文緯武禮仁克孝匡皇帝)
Zhu Youlang
朱由榔
24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662
(15 years, 5 months and 8 days)
Era(s)

    • Longwu (隆武)
      24 December 1646 – 4 February 1647
    • Yongli (永曆)
      5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662
Son of Zhu Changying, grandson of the Wanli Emperor 1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662
(aged 38)
Captured and killed by the Qing forces[58]

Timeline

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Zhu YoulangZhu YuyueZhu YihaiZhu ChangfangZhu YujianZhu YousongChongzhen EmperorTianqi EmperorTaichang EmperorWanli EmperorLongqing EmperorJiajing EmperorZhengde EmperorHongzhi EmperorChenghua EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingJingtai EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingXuande EmperorHongxi EmperorYongle EmperorJianwen EmperorHongwu EmperorSouthern MingMing dynasty

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[25]
  2. ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[29]
  3. ^ The posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by the Qianlong Emperor in 1736.[29]
  4. ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[29]
  5. ^ After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[31] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[32]
  6. ^ a b Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Northern Yuan dynasty in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.[36]
  7. ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
  8. ^ a b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
  9. ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
  2. ^ Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
  3. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
  4. ^ "The Emperor in the Cosmic Order". Asia for Educators (AFE), Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University.
  5. ^ Duhalde, Marcelo (8 August 2018). "Life inside the Forbidden City. Chapter 3". South China Morning Post.
  6. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 96.
  7. ^ "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  8. ^ Atwell (2002), p. 84.
  9. ^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
  10. ^ Huang (1997).
  11. ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
  12. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
  13. ^ Mote (2003), p. 98.
  14. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
  15. ^ a b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
  16. ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
  17. ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
  18. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
  19. ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
  20. ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
  21. ^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 109–110.
  22. ^ Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291.
  23. ^ a b Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[better source needed]
  24. ^ Wilkinson (2018), pp. 294–295.
  25. ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 885–886.
  26. ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
  27. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  28. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  29. ^ a b c Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  30. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  31. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
  32. ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
  33. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  34. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  35. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  36. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 171.
  37. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  38. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  39. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 171–172; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  40. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  41. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  42. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  43. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  44. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  45. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  46. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  47. ^ Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  48. ^ Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  49. ^ Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  50. ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  51. ^ Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  52. ^ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Kerlouegan 2011, p. 51.
  53. ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
  54. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  55. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  56. ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  57. ^ Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  58. ^ Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.

Works cited

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Further reading

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  • Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
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